Monday, September 30, 2019

Ethical Behavior and Social Responsibility of Organizations Essay

Introduction Proper ethical behavior is a significant part of conducting business. Organizations must therefore find ways to incorporate ethical considerations into their strategic plan. Firms need to practice self governance and obey existing laws if they are to ensure their survival and the well-being of the society in which they exist. The decisions made by an organization affect society as a whole. This paper will examine the social responsibilities of organizations to each of their stakeholders. These include: customers, employees, shareholders, suppliers, the local government and the environment. Each section of this report is supplemented with a case study illustrating the consequences of unethical behavior in business. Defining Ethics Ethics is a ubiquitous term that is subject to personal interpretation. Individuals and groups are guided by moral principles or values. Their beliefs help them to set standards for deciphering right from wrong (Little, 2011). Ethical values are dynamic and are therefore subject to renegotiation and change. These changes are often influenced by periodic and contextual circumstances. As ethical beliefs differ from person to person, it may not be entirely possible to instill a universal set of values. Also, many individuals have different points of reference when determining what is right and what is wrong (Little, 2011). Domestically, ethical values tend to be closely aligned. Individuals who have been socialized in a particular region are more likely to have similar values, laws, religion, knowledge and culture. With the emergence of free-trade agreements, many firms have the opportunity to conduct international business. Although these organizations are usually successful in aligning their economic interests, many have failed to recognize or understand the cultural norms, laws and ethical practices of the country they are conducting business with. Defining Social Responsibility An organization’s approach to social responsibility can impact its image and reputation. Depending on how an organization addresses this aspect of business, ethics can either be a strength or a weakness. Social responsibility can be divided into three categories: obligatory, reactive or responsive behavior (Duening & Ivancevisch, 2008). An organization that acts out of social obligation tends to direct its behavior to the legal pursuit of profit (Duening et al., 2008). Socially reactive organizations often adhere to social norms, values and performance expectations (Duening et al., 2008). These organizations must be accountable for the ecological, environmental and social costs incurred by their actions (Duening et al., 2008). Lastly, socially responsive organizations often engage in behavior that exceeds the actions taken by socially obligated and socially reactive organizations. For example, these firms take stands on public issues, account for their actions, anticipate future needs of society, move toward satisfying them, and communicate with the government regarding existing and anticipated socially desirable legislation (Duening et al., 2008). As illustrated above, social responsibility can mean different things to different people. In a broad sense, social responsibility is a compliance to the legal obligations, social norms and ethical standards of society. For the purpose of this paper, I will use the broad sense of the term, unless otherwise specified. Social Responsibility of Organizations to Internal Beneficiaries Social Responsibility to Employees Legally, organizations are responsible for providing their employees with a minimum wage, safe working conditions and the freedom to form a union (Duening et al., 2008). These laws discourage management from creating workplaces that violate employee civil rights (Duening et al., 2008). However, many part-time employers, fast food restaurants and retailers provide only the minimum. Historically, employee benefits emerged out of pressure from employees, unions and the community. Today, most organizations are expected to go beyond the minimum legal requirements by providing their employees with â€Å"fringe benefits†, such as retirement funds, health and accident insurance (Duening et al., 2008). Many socially reactive and socially responsive organizations have extended their benefits to include training, career development, counseling, employee assistance programs, day-care and flex-time policies. As employee family life becomes more complex, organizations must find ways to offer support. Many modern organizations are concerned about employee satisfaction and the benefits associated with it. Employees who are content demonstrate a higher commitment to the organization, which often translates into less absenteeism, higher morale and higher productivity. Overall, the modern worker wants his job to be both meaningful and fulfilling (Duening et al., 2008). Social Irresponsibility to Employees: Wal-Mart Wal-mart is one of the most profitable and efficiently run organizations in the world. In 2005, the corporation grossed two-hundred and forty billion dollars in sales, yet still failed to provide its employees with health care benefits and a livable wage (Greenwald & Gilliam, 2005). On numerous occasions, the organization neglected to provide its employees with the basic legal requirements. As a result, Wal-mart is now facing a number of class action law suits. Reports suggest that the organization is also notorious for keeping its stores understaffed. Although overtime is rarely an option, employees are still expected to work off the clock to get the job done (Greenwald et al., 2005). Workers are ordered to complete their tasks and are often told that they can be replaced. Given their unfortunate personal circumstances, many employees put up with this abuse. In terms of employee well-being, a large majority of Walmart’s workers cannot afford the company’s basic medical insurance at just seventy-five dollars per month. (Greenwald et al., 2005). However, Wal-mart encourages its employees to seek out section-8 housing, food stamps and government-provided health insurance. (Greenwald et al., 2005). Evidently, Wal-mart’s everyday low prices are a result of taxpayer subsidies. Nationwide, Wal-mart is costing taxpayers over one and a half billion dollars a year in subsidies for its employees (Greenwald et al., 2005). As a result of these policies, Walmart’s average sales employee is living below the Federal Poverty Line. (Greenwald et al., 2005). In 2001, Barbara Ehrenreich conducted a sociological study to determine whether or not she could survive on a low wage. She found a job at Wal-mart in Minnesota. Her study reaffirmed the poor working conditions that Wal-mart employees often endure. In the following quote Ehrenreich talks about a shirt that she wanted to purchase for work: â€Å"One of the rules is that our shirts have to have collars, so they have to be polos, not tees. Somehow I’d missed this during orientation†¦ At $7 an hour, a $7 shirt is just not going to make it to my shopping list† (Ehrenreich, 2002, p.88). Given the low wage that she earns, she has difficulty justifying the purchase of a seven dollar work shirt. In the next quote, her co-worker Alyssa finds herself in a more difficult situation: â€Å"Alyssa is another target for my crusade. When she returns to check yet again on that $7 polo, she finds a stain on it. What could she get off for that? I think 10 percent, and if you add in the 10 percent employee discount, we’d be down to $5.60. I’m trying to negotiate a 20 percent price reduction with the fitting room lady when rotten luck Howard shows up and announces that there are no reductions and no employee discounts on clearanced items. Those are the rules. Alyssa looks crushed, and I tell her, when Howard’s out of sight, that there’s something wrong when you’re not paid enough to buy a Wal-Mart shirt, a clearanced Wal-Mart shirt with a stain on it. â€Å"I hear you,† she says, and admits Wal-Mart isn’t working for her either, if the goal is to make a living† (Ehrenreich, 2002, p.100). Wal-mart is also notorious for squashing unions. If a branch plans to hold a union vote, the organization will hire new employees to dilute the number of people who are pro union. Moreover, the organization allots each store a seven-thousand dollar anti-union package; a thirty-thousand dollar undercover spy van, access to the organization’s one hundred thousand dollar anti-union hot-line; and the use of its seven-million dollar corporate jet for rapid response (Greenwald et al., 2005). If a branch is successful in a union vote, Wal-mart will not hesitate to close down that particular retail outlet. In summary, with the absence of unions and the current mind-set of management, it is highly unlikely that employee working conditions will improve any time soon. Social Responsibility to Shareholders Organizations have a social responsibility to their shareholders and must provide accurate information for investment decisions. (Duening et al., 2008). As stated by Duening and Ivancevich, â€Å"the ultimate action a stockholder can take is to sell the stock† (2008). It is important that organizational information be transparent and accessible. Also, organizations must be as efficient and effective as possible with the use of their resources. Any process or product feature that does not add value is wasteful and has an adverse effect on the bottom line. Investors of the twenty-first century want instant gratification and are therefore often fixated on short-term earnings. As corporations and their managers face pressure from shareholders to produce appeasing quarterly results, they often fail to think about the long-term well being of the organization, its employees and the environment. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in performance-based bonuses. In many multinational organizations, executives earn exponentially more than their lowest paid employees. As an incentive, executives often receive options for shares in the company. The value of those options is contingent upon the company’s short, medium or long-term performance. In 2010, chief executives at the United States’ five hundred largest firms collectively took home four billion dollars (DeCarlo, 2010). The value realized from exercised stock options accounted for the main component of their pay (DeCarlo, 2010). When managers act in their own self interest, bonus-based compensation schemes can have dire consequences for all parties involved. Social Irresponsibility to Shareholders: Enron In 2001, Enron filed for bankruptcy (Bryce, 2003). At the time, it was the largest bankruptcy in the history of the United States. The management cooked the books and misrepresented their position to shareholders (Little, 2011). Enron used mark-to-market accounting practices to manipulate earnings and to create a mirage of success. On several occasions, company executives lied to investors, overstated earnings and omitted critical information (Bryce, 2003). As a result, stakeholders lost billions of dollars. Also, the employee pension plan contained over two billion dollars in assets with sixty-two percent of the funds invested in Enron stock (Bryce, 2003). Thousands of Enron employees lost a bulk of their life savings. In addition, the California Public Employees Retirement system lost three billion dollars (Bryce, 2003). Many individuals, investment firms and hedge funds lost billions of dollars as well. While thousands of individuals lost large sums of money, Enron executives netted significant returns from their unethical stock manipulation and insider trading. Social Responsibility to the Supply Chain The supply chain is a system of organizations, people, technology, activities, information and resources involved in moving a product or service from the supplier to the consumer (Shafer et al., 2010). Within the chain, an organization can be both a supplier and a customer. Today, many organizations realize the importance of strengthening relationships and working with fewer suppliers. In effect, suppliers and their customers have become interdependent on one another. Traditionally, customers pitted suppliers against each other in hopes of getting the best price. Today, however, many suppliers play a vital role in the operations process. Through vendor-managed inventory systems, organizations have been able to avoid stockouts, thus reducing inventory costs (Shafer et al., 2010). Corporations that rely on sole sourcing have a partner-like relationship with their suppliers. The just-in-time delivery system is based on customers pulling their orders through the supply chain while suppliers ensure the inputs arrive according to schedule. Companies are also responsible for ensuring that their suppliers are treated respectfully and paid on time. In this relationship, both organizations have to turn a profit to ensure their survival. Social Irresponsibility to the Supply Chain: Monsanto Monsanto is an organization that has little regard for the farmers who use its products or the end users that consume them. In 1994, Monsanto introduced Posilac to the American market. Posilac is a bovine growth hormone that was developed to increase milk production. Today, â€Å"the United States is the only developed nation that permits humans to drink milk from cows that have been given artificial growth hormone† (Laskawy, 2010, para 3). This product was banned in twenty-seven countries including Canada and the European Union (Achbar et al.,2004). Moreover, Posilac was tested for only ninety days to assess for human toxicity (Achbar et al., 2004). There is widespread concern regarding the long-term effects of this product on the well-being of humans and animals. Despite these concerns, this product was approved by the Food and Drug Administration. Either Monsanto misreported its findings or the Food and Drug Administration did not look at them. Health Canada research showed that bovine growth hormone could be absorbed by the human body with the possibility of a link to cancer (Achbar et al.,2004). In addition to being harmful, Posilac is of little value to farmers and end users. Prior to Posilac’s release, there was an abundance of milk in the marketplace and farmers were told to produce less of it (Achbar et al.,2004) Monsanto is an organization that supplies harmful products and expects farmers to distribute them to the general population. This organization is responsible for the premature release of bio-engineered foods in the marketplace. The long-term effects of genetically-modified food are still unknown. However, Monsanto requires a high level of coordination to get its products to market. The firm often requires help from politicians, professors, scientists, experts, the general public, reporters, and the Food and Drug Administration (Achbar et al.,2004). Monsanto also engineers terminator seeds. These are seeds that terminate themselves through a suicide gene (Achbar et al.,2004). Since terminator seeds are only good for one season, Monsanto has lowered the intrinsic value of them. In nature, seeds are meant to be replanted annually. However, this product goes against evolution and human well-being. There are billions of people around the world who are starving to death and farmers have been denied the opportunity to replant their seeds on an annual basis.This product is immoral to its customers, the end users, and humanity as a whole. Nonetheless, Monsanto still expects its customers to distribute these products to the end users. Social Responsibility to Customers Value is defined as any action or process that a customer is willing to pay for (Shafer & Meredith, 2010). To eliminate unnecessary waste, organizations should always be mindful of customer needs. Processes that drive up costs but do not increase the overall value of a product are wasteful. Firms should strive to reduce overproduction, inventory costs, unnecessary processing, wait times, transportation costs, and unnecessary human motions while minimizing the number of defects (Shafer et al., 2010). Competitive organizations continue to improve the quality and durability of their products (Shafer et al., 2010). However, if an organization fails to use its resources efficiently and effectively, it will likely be punished in the marketplace. A consumer has the ultimate decision on whether or not they will purchase a particular product. Therefore, companies should be adequately prepared to address consumer concerns and after-service needs, should they arise. Also, consumer goods should not do any biological or psychological harm to their customers. Products that have the potential to do harm to others should be put through rigorous testing to ensure they are safe for human use and consumption. Social Irresponsibility to Customers: Aguas del Tunari For twenty years, the World Bank has been working alongside successive governments toward independent development in Bolivia. The World Bank believes that a high proportion of leaders in developing nations are susceptible to corruption, including those in Bolivia. As a result, the organization has played a significant role in assisting the Bolivian government with privatization of its state-owned enterprises. In 2000, Aguas del Tunari corporation signed a forty-year contract with the Bolivian government to provide water to impoverished citizens in Cochabamba City, Bolivia. Aguas del Tunari was guaranteed a minimum annual return of fifteen percent on their two-and-a-half billion dollar investment (Salina & Starr, 2008). As part of the deal, Aguas del Tunari Corporation agreed to repay thirty million dollars of debt accumulated by the state utility company (Salina et al., 2008). In an effort to pay off the debt, Aguas del Tunari corporation increased water rates to twenty dollars per month — a thirty-five percent increase (Achbar, Abbott, Bakan & Simpson, ,2004). However, the company failed to consider the fact that many of its new clients were surviving on only two dollars a day (Achbar et al., 2004). This meant that the cost of water would account for roughly twenty-five percent of their daily income (Achbar et al., 2004). To make matters worse, the government had privatized rain water, making it illegal to collect the rainfall (Achbar et al.,2004). When the newly-owned utility company shut off the water supply to non-paying customers, violent protests erupted across all classes of society. Ninety-six percent of citizens demanded that the contract with Aguas del Tunari be terminated (Salina & Starr, 2008) . The government of Bolivia refused and told its citizens that there was nothing to negotiate. Protests spread to other major cities in Bolivia, eventually causing a ripple effect that would put the country into a state of emergency. To remedy this problem, the Bolivian government kicked Aguas del Tunari out of the country and resumed its role as the nation’s utility operator. In this unique case, it is difficult to conceptualize water as a commodity. Water is essential for survival and is seen as a birth right. Many would argue that the local government is responsible for regulating the cost of water and ensuring that it is affordable for all citizens. Since water surrounds us and falls naturally from the sky, it is difficult for a corporation to add value to it. Privatization of rain water is an extreme concept and certainly crosses some ethical boundaries. Social Responsibility of Corporations to External Beneficiaries Social Responsibility to Local Governments Elected officials have a social responsibility to the people whom they represent. Although corporations cannot directly cast a vote, they can leverage their power by donating large sums of money to political campaigns. In return, they often expect regulatory favors, exceptions, and preferential treatment. Corporations must however respect the local government and prohibit themselves from lobbying, bribing or manipulating local officials for the financial benefit of the organization. Although firms should not tempt government officials, politicians should also avoid situations where they may become vulnerable. As governments and organizations continue to work closely to achieve their objectives, they must ensure they maintain their ethical boundaries. When corporations gain power, the relative authority of local government diminishes and their authoritative power is often confined to their given jurisdiction. As organizations continue to grow, it is becoming increasingly difficult for them to be audited by local governments and regulatory bodies. For this reason, governments should consider implementing more rules and tougher sanctions to prevent legal and ethical misconduct. As history has shown, corporations are not always capable of self- governance. Social Irresponsibility to Local Governments: Long-Term Capital Management Deregulation of public enterprises and new business practices may not always be in the best interest of the general public. In 2000, the Clinton administration passed a bill that would deregulate the derivatives market and establish legal certainty for bankers (Lowenstein, 2002). The three major classes of derivatives are: futures, options and swaps. In detail, the derivatives market is not well understood by policy makers. There have been numerous cases of corporate fraud, financial mismanagement and unnecessary risk. Moreover, taxpayers have fronted billions of dollars to bail out financial institutions. In 2008, the value of the overall derivatives market was an astonishing six-hundred and sixty-eight trillion dollars (Sheridan, 2008). In 1994, Long-term Capital Management took the financial world by storm. This hedge fund was established by two proven Wall Street traders and two Nobel Laureates (Lowenstein, 2002). The fund started with four billion dollars in capital from its investors. The firm enjoyed four straight years of prosperity without a single monthly loss to be reported on their balance sheet. LTCM was thought to be the perfect hedge fund. It simply could not lose. LTCM leveraged its balance sheet trading by 30 to 1, while leveraging its off balance sheet trading by 250 to 1 (Lowenstein, 2002). At one point, the company had in excess of one trillion dollars in derivatives exposure (Lowenstein, 2002). In a short period of time, LTCM had lost nearly everything and turned to banks and the federal reserve for a bailout. At the time, this was the largest bailout ever. In Wall Street’s eyes, LTCM was simply too big to fail. It was thought that its demise would have had dire consequences for the entire economy. Since then, bigger investment firms have failed, bigger bailouts have been distributed and derivatives are still being heavily traded. It appears Wall Street still has a lesson to learn. It was the government’s deregulation of derivatives that allowed LTCM and other investment firms to behave unethically and do as they pleased. As a regulatory body, the Federal Reserve sent out the wrong message by bailing out LTCM. Condoning the behavior of this hedge fund created an environment that would encourage other financial institutions to take the same risks. Social Responsibility to the Environment and Future Generations Today, consumers and citizens increasingly expect more from organizations. Traditionally, firms externalized their costs while internalizing their profits. Today, however, many corporations are becoming ethically conscious and are working toward minimizing their carbon footprint. They have started to use mechanisms known as stakeholder management devices to respond to stakeholder claims (Duening et al., 2008). Progressive organizations have started working toward sustainable development to help create a world that is suitable for future generations. Many firms are also taking an interest in social issues. Some have started practicing corporate philanthropy. These positive efforts enhance a corporation’s good will and improves its overall image. This often translates into more sales and higher profit margins. Organizations that fail to take responsibility for their actions are often looked down upon. For example, an organization that shows complete disregard for the environment will likely tarnish their image and build up ill will. In effect, companies that act out of social obligation are viewed less positively than those that are socially responsive. Social Responsibility to the Environment and Future Generations: Tokyo Electric Power Company In March of 2011, the Japanese coast was rattled by a forceful 9.0 earthquake and a gigantic tsunami. The Fukushima Dai-chi and Fukushima Dai-ni power plants sustained critical damage (TEPCO to Compensate Nuclear Plant Victims, 2011). Both of these power plants are privately owned by the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO to Compensate Nuclear Plant Victims, 2011). The nuclear disaster revealed the company’s misplaced confidence and a failure to adequately forecast its worst case scenario. Furthermore, the company chose to disregard Japan’s tsunami history and relevant GPS data. TEPCO engineers did not factor in earthquakes that occurred prior to 1896 (TEPCO Dimissed Important Scientific Evidence in Planning Nuclear Plant’s Defense, 2011). Tsunami modelers at TEPCO factored in an earthquake of 8.6 magnitude in its worst case scenario model (TEPCO Dimissed Important Scientific Evidence in Planning Nuclear Plant’s Defense, 2011). The earthquake that occured on March 11, 2011 was four times more powerful than the maximum presumed (TEPCO Dimissed Important Scientific Evidence in Planning Nuclear Plant’s Defense, 2011). Given Japan’s geographical position and the volatility of nuclear energy, TEPCO should have put more thought into their calculations. After much delay, the Japanese government has ordered TEPCO to pay partial retribution to the citizens affected by this nuclear catastrophe. Beginning on April 28, 2011, TEPCO has started to compensate families in the nominal sum of twelve-thousand dollars for losses attributed to evacuation, having to stay indoors and nuclear contamination (TEPCO to Compensate Nuclear Plant Victims, 2011). These partial retributions are miniscule. Often times it is cheaper for a corporation to hire a good public relations specialist than to rectify the actual problem. This nuclear disaster has crippled local businesses, fishing operations, tourism and the livelihood of citizens. TEPCO’s greed and irresponsibility has cost the citizens of Japan and the nation at large by causing tremendous losses. Moreover, citizens in neighboring countries and the Western part of the United States have grown concerned over their personal well-being. In TEPCO’s case, the local government should have taken extra measures to ensure the facilities were built to withstand an earthquake of great proportion. Local governments are elected and represent the interest of the people. Therefore, it is their responsibility to ensure private organizations behave ethically. Companies should be forced to take full accountability for their actions. In regard to privatization of nuclear energy, governments should pressure organizations to strive for seven-sigma quality. As we have witnessed, a defect in nuclear energy can have significant implications for the general population. Conclusion As illustrated in this paper, organizations have a social responsibility to both their internal and external beneficiaries. Firms should always conduct business with integrity and concern for others. Although many organizations may feel pressure to increase their short-term earnings, they must retain their focus and uphold their social responsibilities to their stakeholders. Through long-term objectives, organizations can set standards that will ensure their survival. It’s important to emphasize that the decisions an organization makes will often affect society as a whole. As illustrated in the case studies above, companies that go astray or act in their own self interest can adversely affect the well-being of many stakeholders. However, tougher sanctions and an organizational credo may help give an organization ethical focus. In conclusion, by practicing self-governance and obeying existing laws, corporations will be well on their way to becoming socially responsible and dependable organizations. Works Cited Achbar, M. (Director/Producer), Abbott, J. (Director), Bakan, J. (Writer), & Simpson, B. (Producer) (2004). The Corporation (DVD). Canada: Big Picture Media Corporation. Bryce, R (2003). Pipe Dreams – Greed, Ego and the Death of Enron. New York, NY: Public Affairs. DeCarlo, S. (2010). What the Boss Makes.Forbes.com.Retrieved on April 18th, 2011 from http://www.forbes.com/2010/04/27/compensation-chief-executive-salary-leadership-boss-10-ceo-compensation-intro.html Duening, T. N., Ivancevisch, J. M. (2006). Managing Organizations Principles & Guidelines. Cincinnati, OH: Atomic Dog. Ehrenreich, B. (2002). Nickel and Dimed On Not Getting By in America. New York, NY: Owl Book. Greenwald, R. (Director), Gilliam, J. (Producer) (2005). Walmart: The High Cost of Low Price (DVD). United States: Brave New Films Disinformation Company. Laskawy, T. (2010). Court Rules rBGH-Free Milk Milk is Better Than the Kind Produced With Articifical Hormones. Now What? Retrieved on April 19, 2011 from http://www.grist.org/article/food-2010-10-06-court-rules-on-rbgh-free-milk. Little, C. (2011). Ethics [class lectures]. Texas A&M University-Commerce. Spring 2011. Lowenstein, R. (2002). When Genius Failed: The Rise and Fall of Long-term Capital Management. Great Britain: Clays Ltd and St. Ives plc. Salina, I. (Director), Starr, S. (Producer) (2008). Flow: For The Love of Water (DVD). United States: Oscilloscope Laboratories. Shafer, S. & Meredith, J. (2010). Operations Management for MBAs, 4th Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Sheridan, B. (2008). 600,000,000,000,000? Newsweek. Retrieved on April 20, 2011 from http://www.newsweek.com/2008/10/17/600-000-000-000-000.html. TEPCO to Compensate Japan’s Nuclear Plant Victims. (2011). BBC News Asia_Pacific. Retrieved on April 17, 2011 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13090304 TEPCO Dimissed Important Scientific Evidence in Planning Nuclear Plant’s Defense. (2011). Japan Today. Retrieved on April 24, 2011 from http://www.japantoday.com/category/commentary/view/tepco-dismissed-important-scientific-evidence-in-planning-nuclear-plants-defense.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Intensive Livestock Operations in Industrial Agriculture

As the world’s population continues to grow at an ever increasing rate, we are forced to find more efficient ways to produce sufficient quantities of food in order to satisfy consumer demand. Although there are several alternatives, the most convenient solution seems to be the development of industrial production agriculture, which results in the farming practices of confined animal feeding.Intensive livestock operations or confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are farms in which anywhere from several hundred to several thousand animals are being raised in tremendously condensed spaces for the commercial production of poultry, meat and dairy. The Swiss College of Agriculture defines â€Å"industrial systems [as having] livestock densities larger than 10 livestock units per hectare, and they depend primarily on outside supplies of feed, energy, and other inputs, as in confined animal feeding operations†(Menzi. Oenema.Shipin. Gerber. Robinson. Franceshini. ). Althoug h CAFOs are currently the most cost-effective and efficient way to produce animal products, there are multiple adverse effects associated with these production practices. Tons of manure, waste, and other by-products generated from intensive livestock operations pollute the air, soil, and water in surrounding areas due to agricultural run-off. CAFOs pose a serious threat to the environment from water and air pollution, which in turn is potentially harmful to the wellbeing of humans.Nevertheless, supporters of modern industrial agricultural production practices claim that the economic benefits of theses farming practices currently outweigh the potential consequences to the environment and society. Although modern industrial agricultural practices may have a few problems, there are a multitude of advantages that are commonly overlooked when discussing the effects of these production techniques. After all, the development of industrial agriculture was the solution to a problem before it was ever the problem.When demand for cheap food began to grow substantially in the mid twentieth century, farmers began to use production techniques such as intensive livestock operations to supply this increased demand. In addition to increased production quantities, intensive livestock operations have significantly lowered food prices by allowing farms to enjoy lower production costs, greater production efficiency and increased consistency and control over product output due to standardization.According to the Union of Concerned Scientists, â€Å"the benefits of industrial agriculture have been cheap food; a release of labor from agricultural activities for employment in other sectors; large, profitable chemical and agricultural industries; and increased export markets. † It is difficult to ignore the massive economic contributions indirectly related to intensive livestock operations as well. For example, â€Å"the Union of Concerned Scientists estimates that nontherapeut ic animal agricultural use (drugs given to animals even when they are not sick) accounts for 70 percent of total antibiotic consumption in the United States† (Sayre).The excess profits these pharmaceutical companies earn each year as a result of confined animal feeding operations enables new business investments, which in turn creates new jobs. Nevertheless, the system is not perfect and several problems do exist with industrial production agriculture. However, the revenues generated by these industrial production practices account for a significant portion of US GDP and are an integral part of the economy. According to the Union of Concerned Scientists, â€Å"agricultural products make up 10 percent of all exported US merchandise. It would simply be too detrimental to global and domestic food supplies as well as the economies associated with each to suddenly discontinue the use of industrial farming practices. Industrial livestock operations are widely scrutinized, and right ly so. Although the monetary production gains from industrial livestock operations are substantial, there are countless environmental and social costs associated with these production practices. Pollution from animal waste is the most immense problem concerning CAFOs.John Cotter of the Canadian Press states that, â€Å"Canadian livestock produced 164 billion kilograms of manure in 2001, enough to fill Toronto’s Sky Dome stadium twice a week. † There is simply too much manure in too small a space to be able to economically dispose of it in an environmentally friendly way. The inability to properly dispose of all the tons of animal waste produced results in farmland around industrial livestock operations to become overly saturated with excrement, which leads to agricultural run-off; polluting streams and rivers.Polluted water from agricultural runoff has tested positive for â€Å"E. coli from farm animal manure [and] was responsible for killing seven people and making 2 ,300 others ill in the rural Ontario community of Walkerton in May of 2000†(Cotter). Antibiotics used in intensive livestock operations may contaminate the water supply as well; causing a â€Å"rapid rise of antibiotic-resistant microbes, an inevitable consequence of the widespread use of antibiotics as feed additives in industrial livestock operations† (Sayre).Air pollution from concentrated animal feeding operations is of growing concern as well, â€Å"they emit methane gas, a factor in global climate change, and hydrogen sulfide, which causes flulike symptoms in humans and, at high levels, leads to brain damage†(EH Update). Although there are numerous additional consequences resulting from industrial livestock operations, water and air pollution have the greatest impact on human safety and the environment.The adverse social and environmental costs of intensive livestock operations must be taken into consideration when determining the true cost of â€Å"cheap food. † Although substantial conflicts arise between the two opposing views on CAFOs in industrial production agriculture, neither side can deny the resulting economic benefits nor the potential environmental and societal hazards related to these production practices. The core discrepancy between the two outlooks lies within the cost/benefit analysis of industrial farming practices.Supporters of industrial agriculture and intensive livestock operations claim that the economic benefits gained through these efficient production techniques; such as increased output, lower production costs, and profits to input suppliers significantly outweigh the latent environmental and societal dangers associated with these production practices. On the other hand, opposing parties maintain that the water, air, and soil pollution caused by industrial livestock operations along with the resulting detrimental consequences to society and the environment are far greater than the economic benefits pr ovided by these production practices.Although I am an avid believer in the free market and the theory that public resources such as water and air should be shared, there is much needed regulation in industrial livestock farming practices. These factory farms are extremely unhealthy: not only for consumers of the products produced, but for society as a whole. The farming practices related to concentrated animal feeding operations are socially, environmentally, and economically unsustainable in the long run. Antibiotic resistance, the creation of new pathogens as well as water and air pollution will have detrimental effects on society.Nevertheless, a healthy domestic and global economy is critical to the well being of the US and world populations. It would be impossible to simply stop or ban industrial agricultural practices without causing a huge disruption in both domestic and global food supply, as well as the economies associated with each. If we are serious about cleaning up prod uction agriculture, â€Å"government policies such as zoning regulations and taxes can discourage large concentrations of intensive production†(Food and Agriculture Organizations of the United Nations).Other policy decisions include, â€Å"eliminating subsidies, adjusting taxes and providing incentives for investing in technology to reduce pollution could reduce the environmental damage caused by industrial livestock production† (Food and Agriculture Organizations of the United Nations). Above all, it is imperative that we implement policy decisions that aim to reduce industrial agricultural practices by limiting government subsidies and transfer payments, in addition to increasing the benefits farm income programs provide to farmers who practice sustainable forms of agriculture.It is somewhat difficult to truly analyze the costs and benefits related to CAFOs and industrial agricultural practices because many of the consequences cannot be quantified. However, we must r emember that these industrial farming practices were adopted in order to increase output to meet the growing demand for agricultural products. Without the use of industrial farming, it would be nearly impossible to economically supply the global population with sufficient quantities of food. In addition, these farming practices support numerous other business ventures that allow other sectors of the economy to grow.Nevertheless, these industrial agricultural practices pose serious threats to the environment and society due to the pollution they produce. Although it is unreasonable to suggest that these farming practices should be prohibited, steps can be made toward reducing agricultural pollution by implementing effective and economical policy decisions, that support sustainable agriculture. Works Cited Cotter, John. â€Å"Rein in factory farms, group tells Ottawa; Environmentalists’ report urges federal; regulation of large-scale manure dumping. Canadian Press (2002): Lexu s Nexus. 17 Sep. 2011. â€Å"EH Update; Water Fluoridation Debate. † Journal of Environmental Health. Issue 65. 3 (2002); Vol. 52. pgs 1-7. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 17 Sep. 2011. (No author listed) â€Å"Environment; Industrial Livestock Production Near Cities Considered Damaging. †Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Africa News. (2006); LexusNexus. 17 Sep. 2011. Sayre, Laura. â€Å"The Hidden Link Between Factory Farms and Human Illness. † Mother Earth News 232 (2009): 76-83. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO.Web. 17 Sep. 2011. Swiss College of Agriculture, Menzi, H. ; Oenema, O. ; Burton, C. ; Shipin, O. ; Gerber, P. ; Robinson, T. ;Franceschini, G. â€Å"Impacts of intensive livestock production and manure management on the environment. † Livestock in a changing landscape, Volume 1: drivers, consequences and responses. 2010 pp. 139-163. ISBN: 978-1-59726-671-0. Union of Concerned Scientists. â€Å"The Costs and Benefits of Industrial Agriculture. †Sustainable Agriculture—A New Vision. 1997. http://www. portaec. net/library/food/costs_and_benefits_of_industrial. html

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Teaching assistants Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Teaching assistants - Essay Example It has been argued that teaching assistants have too much responsibility without being given sufficient recognition for what they do.Discuss the evidence that is available to support or refute this statement indicating which appears to be more persuasive..''There is a Chinese proverb," Teachers open the door. You enter by yourself." Teaching is an art and to learn is also an art. Learning depends upon the level of interest of a student and art of a teacher is that how she/he make the specific subject or lecture interesting that a student has no other option but to learn whatever is being taught to him/her. If someone asks you to categorize teachers you may say math teacher, science teacher etc etc or you might say a good teacher and a bad teacher but you will never say a teacher and a teacher assistant. Do you know why Because most of us don't give the sufficient recognition to teacher assistants, we even don't consider them as teachers but as a helper to teacher or just an assistant .Just think when you will get into your practical life and some day sit down and try to remember your school days what would first came to your mind Your class room, your table, the teacher you most hated and your favorite teacher.that's it Had you ever taught about the teachers who use to come in your class in the absence of your teacherThese teacher assistants check your papers, copies and are indirectly related to you somehow and it won't be wrong if you had considered them one of your teachers. These teacher assistants are paid less then your class teacher may be that's why they are of less importance to you or the education system. She/he sits with the teacher in class and tries to judge if students are able to understand the lecture or not. Normally he/she is friendlier than your teacher. So in short the teacher assistant is a support for teacher, students, curriculum and school as well. They sometimes play the role of a mentor as well for the students as they interact with th e students more than the teacher. In short "they exploit and create learning opportunities"3 The question that arises is if they are given the appropriate pay and recognition for what they do A teacher works come to an end after attending class but a teacher assistant have to make course outline, examination schedule etc etc. Teaching has been considered as one of the noblest professions of world especially for women. These women are very competent who choose teaching as a profession because it is not easy to teach someone; To make them understand what you want to. A teacher assistant is also a kind of teacher who works more hard than "teachers". Then why they couldn't get the respect that students usually give to the teachers The reasons would be because they are paid less, they sometimes have to face arrogance of the teacher if she/did did any mistake or if the word "assistant" had made them lesser important than teacher or they might think that assistant know less then teacher. Unqualified Teachers: In some areas of world even teachers are not qualified enough i.e. "a survey of teacher qualifications in Northern Ireland which indicates that a significant percentage of teachers are unqualified in the areas of mathematics, physics, ICT, history and

Friday, September 27, 2019

Court Reporting. Write up two court reports, from the given material Essay

Court Reporting. Write up two court reports, from the given material each with a commentary - Essay Example While presenting the case, the prosecution reiterated that the girl had been found murdered in a field near Seaburn Metro Station over the weekend. She had five stubs in the stomach and medical reports presented in the court showed that she died from shock and internal bleeding. Before the body was discovered, the 14 year old girl had gone missing since Friday when she failed to return from school. A dog walker discovered the body of the girl lifeless in the field the following morning as police was already conducting a search. According to witnesses, the accused boy had squabbles with the dead girlfriend days before the incident. Detectives are still awaiting the test results of DNA samples collected from a knife used in the murder. The defendant’s lawyer, Doug Richardson asked the court to bail him out, citing the defendant had no previous criminal records. The court denied request for the bail given the weight of a murder charge. The defendant remains in police custody awai ting the next court hearing as the victim awaits burial next month. Commentary Whereas journalists have the responsibility to provide the community with accurate information of the happenings going on around them, there are legal responsibilities they have to consider when reporting events (Banks 2012, 02). Court proceedings are sensitive. While reporting the murder case involving the teenager, Paul Ross, the law requires that the name of the defendant be withheld. Whereas there is never any problem mentioning the name of the victim unless in a sexual assault or rape case, I chose to withhold the name of Monica Smith to protect identity of the accused. Additionally, the report does not detail the names of the parents of the accused and the victim for the same reason of protection of identity. This is particularly imperative given the fact that a defendant remains innocent until proved guilty in a legal procedure. In addition, the report fails to mention remarks reported in the court as having transpired before and after the incident. Before the murder, the defendant is reported to have states, â€Å"If I can’t have her, no one can.† Additionally, Ross is recorded to have broken down and confessed killing his girlfriend during police interrogation. He said, â€Å"I didn’t mean to kill her, just frighten her with the knife.† This report dodges these comments primarily to prevent a scenario that may show prejudice and bias. The journalist report fails to mention these statements as that would seem as though the journalist already has a formed opinion that Ross is guilty. It leaves the legal responsibility of determining innocence or guilt to the judiciary. Second Court Case The Newcastle Magistrates Court on Monday bailed out a revered Newcastle barrister after an awry â€Å"blind date† led to a lawsuit. The 33-year-old resident was charged with attempted rape of 19 year old Sunderland University Law student. The two were strang ers to each other until Friday night when they met at a popular nightclub in town. The young woman claimed that they did not know each other until that evening when the defendant bought her drinks and asked her out to smoke cigarette. She says it was at that moment that the defendant tries raping her, raised an alarm and escaped before calling the police. In his defense, the 33-year old Newcastle resident reiterated that they had mutual consent to spend the night in a hotel room next to the

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Software Process Models Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Software Process Models - Essay Example this scenario, the hospital will be using this information system to keep a record of the patient, such as their personal information, information regarding their disease and so on. The software development team has decided to adopt prototyping model for the development of this information system. This approach will allow the software development team to build a prototype of the system in order that the users of the system could identify the working of the proposed system. Basically, the majority of system analysts nowadays makes use of prototypes all the way through the system design. A prototype is a functioning model of the planned system (Whitten, Bentley, & Dittman, 2000; Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005). The system analyst basically constructs a useful structure of the solution throughout the design. Prototyping allows the software development team to develop a functional system quickly and reasonably for end users to weigh up. By communicating with the prototype users can search out an improved suggestion of the information requirements. The prototype authorized by the users can be used as a model to build the ultimate system. In this scenario, the prototype can be acknowledged as a functioning adaptation of software or an element of the software, but it is intended to be no more than a development model. Additionally, once prepared, the prototype will be additionally developed until it obeys the rules accurately to user’s requirements. Once the design has been completed, the prototype can be transformed into a sophisticated development system. The method of developing a foundational design, making use of it, refining it and trying again has been acknowledged an iterative method of systems development for the reason that the steps essential to develop a system can be repetitive over and over again (Laudon & Laudon, 1999; Whitten, Bentley, & Dittman, 2000). In addition, prototyping is further openly iterative than the traditional life cycle, and it

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Walmart change proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Walmart change proposal - Essay Example So, if I were to intervene, I would give suggestions on the changes that need to be effected in order to resolve these problems. First, the company needs to comply with the wage laws. It should stop exploiting its workers, but pay them at least a minimum wage of $10 per hour. Besides, the company should improve occupational health to the workers. Anyone who works as a seamstress or fabric cutters should be given high quality protective devices like gloves (Ingram; Yue & Rao, 2010). Moreover, the management should not discriminate on employees based on racial prejudices. Lastly, the company should soften its stance and allow its work force to form unions and improve communication with them. So, by supporting outfits like Organization United for Respect (OUR) Wal-Mart, the company would be doing a great thing. I believe that if these changes are properly implemented, the company would have to build a cordial relationship between the management and employees. Thus, it would be in the right path for regaining its reputation, growing and accomplishing its goals. Employee-welfare needs to be reconsidered because they constitute a very significant component of the organization. Without motivating them, nothing can be

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Corporate Finance Speech or Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Corporate Finance - Speech or Presentation Example g too little has its problems and costs like the cost of lost profits that would have been made because of lost sales, the problem of loss of costumer loyalty and patronage, the cost of making more orders from time to time because of limited inventory on hand. Just in time (JIT) practice reduces an inventory level which means lower investments in inventories. It also greatly improves the lead time reliability due to shorter delivery- lead time. There is reduced lead times and set-up time increases scheduling flexibility. Many companies had reported improved quality levels in using JIT. It is also believed that extensive valued analysis reduces cost of purchased materials. There will be lower investments in factory space for inventories and product. There will be also less obsolescence risk in inventories and less paper work and a reduction in scrap and rework. On the other hand, the arguments against JIT include the following: JIT presupposes a disciplined act and as such it demands a long term commitment from management to do it. It management is changing or if there is no stability, it possibly the company may lose what would have earned under the ordinary way of maintaining inventories. There is also great possibility that there would be large initial cost that would possibly not compensated by short term returns. JIT presupposed anticipated demand and supply of its products and if management commits mistake along the way, the effect could be disastrous. JIT also making a stable agreement with supplier for the timely delivery of inputs for production and this may also create problems with supplies of terms large of money to implement the plan for JIT. Related with the large cost is also a risk that will have to be considered by the companies in wanting to implement JIT1. The formula above uses D, which refers to annual demand for the product, O which stands for ordering cost per unit and C, or the carrying cost per unit. In so computing minimum

Monday, September 23, 2019

Religious Life on Planet Earth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Religious Life on Planet Earth - Essay Example The geographical terrain, vegetation and population density have a direct impact on the cultural and social life of humans which indirectly shapes their religious school of thought. Diversity in language, skin color, body shape and the male dominance seem to influence religious indoctrination, which is enforced on their offspring’s. There seem to be some pockets of populations’ on the planet who seem to be atheists but still believe in a culture of work for living, which indirectly translates into a religion itself i.e. their dedication to work for existence is fanatical to the degree of being labeled as religion. On closer observation, one comes to know that such category of societies on earth call themselves socialists. On closer observation, one can see that majority of the populations’ on Earth visualize God as a manifestation of the human form itself, as most of the worshipped entities have human shape. Christians believe in Jesus as the Son of God, Muslims believe that Muhammad was a messiah who brought the message of God to the planet while Hindus worship nature and its powers like fire, water, wind and earth which are depicted by demigods in human shape, who might possess either sex. Christians, Muslim and Sikh religions are heavily oriented towards believing that God’s manifestation is exclusively in the male form, which is the dominant sex in human society on the planet. Sub religions have emerged on the planet out of the above religions with deviants claiming superiority of their respective gods and beliefs. Surprisingly, the human population is greatly divided due to respective faiths’ and does not resist temptation to go to war with each other to prove one’s superiority over the other. Subtle activities to lure people from one religion to the other have been going on the planet once populations’ have migrated from one geographical location to the other en-masse. People on earth have built facilities and buildings exclusively for the practice of their respective religions and such buildings have exclusive architecture, are intricately designed and decorated, and revered highly to the point that people having allegiance to a particular faith bow in submission while passing across these masses of concrete. Christians’ have Churches and cathedrals, Muslims have mosques and the Hindus and Buddhists have temples. They regularly hold congregations on days earmarked as holy in their respective religions and spread the word amongst each other as well as to their young ones reproaching them not to deviate from the established doctrines. Any deviant or revolutionary behavior is highly condemned and the culprit is punished severely or ostracized from within the precincts of the religious society one represents. Religious scriptures have been maintained by all religions on the Earth in written forms’ and are revered as Holy Books by respective religious bodies and societies. S ome humans are considered more religious than others as they shun public life and devout their whole life exclusively in the service of religion. Such persons are labeled as priests with hierarchical designations which increase their stature in society. The function of religion on Earth seems to be to tame individuals into following predefined norms in social life which are conducive for survival in group living. As lower forms of animals survive simply by their physical superiority to have an edge on others representing their species, humans

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Week 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Week 4 - Essay Example It also allows the replacement of the startup configuration file in place of the running configuration file without requiring the installation of a router (Meghanathan, Chaki, & Nagamalai, 2012). Installation of a router would require that the system be shut down thus loss of running time, resources and increase in costs incurred during downtime. Reverting also allows the user to roll back to any Cisco operating system that is saved in the system. This helps in simplifying and hastening the process of inputting the needed commands to the router as only the commands, which required to be added or removed are affected and the rest are left intact (Meghanathan, Chaki, & Nagamalai, 2012). The disadvantages of Reverting to an old system include the system continuing to work under limitations such as inefficiency that initially prompted the change. Additionally, it is not economically sound to revert to an old system as that means loss of resources initially put into the project while Reverting the configuration change must be approved, which frequently results in delay thus loss of time and resources. International Conference on Computer Science and Information Technology: Advances in computer science and information technology: Computer science and information technology: second International Conference, CCSIT 2012, Bangalore, India, and January 2-4, 2012. Proceedings. Berlin:

Saturday, September 21, 2019

The Columbia Encyclopedia Essay Example for Free

The Columbia Encyclopedia Essay Camera inventions multiplied speeds pictures can become available. Someone explored the possibilities of different ways to use many pictures at one time. The amazing invention was moving photography, motion pictures, short for pictures in motion. The first motion pictures made with a single camera were by E. J. Marey, a French physician, in the 1880s, in the course of his study of motion. (The Columbia Encyclopedia) Art historians document the camera obscura was invented dating as far back as 200-300 B. C. but it is Aristotle who popularized the item, finding many useful purposes for it. Film, television and movie programs use light shinning through a miniature circle narrowing the focus of the object, reflected on a huge screen. This technical invention allowing high quality moving pictures to be possible began when Aristotle used the invention to study science, specifically the sun. To explain the camera obscura in simple terms, it is a box, with a pinhole, and light reflects through the tiny pinhole. The amount of light allowed to shine through the pinhole is controlled, giving the objects more detailed precise pictures, more focus. The next step camera technology was the Kinetoscope. In 1889 Thomas Edison and his staff developed the Kinetograph, a camera using rolls of coated celluloid film, and the Kinetoscope, a device for peep-show viewing using photographs that flipped in sequence. (The Columbia Encyclopedia) The Kinetoscope was to the camera obscura what the digital camera is to the Polaroid camera. It allowed a series of pictures to be produced and flipped through faster, giving illusion of continuous smoothly flowing pictures. Moving pictures, studying of motion, were making rapid advancements. The camera obscura allowed one person to view through the pinhole, the Kinetoscope showed moving pictures to groups of people, further encouraging exploring different ways of connecting pictures. The admission for shows cost one penny. In France the LumiA? re brothers created the first projection device, the CinAÂ ©matographe (1895). (The Columbia Encyclopedia) It was not long before moving pictures were in great demand. People loved the entertainment, and movie houses were being built at an alarming rate. Today, movies and movie technology shows no signs of slowing down. The camera served as a link between art paintings and audio recordings. It is the middle point that transformed paintings into multiple copies of still photographs and added sound to it, eventually named film and television movies. Recordings Paintings existed from the beginning of time. The camera was used by artists to view possibilities of looking at their paintings. During the time the camera was continuously being experimented with, musicians were fine tuning audio recordings. Someone found a way to put a combination of photographs into an aesthetic flowing sequence, in a pattern that tells a complete story. After the photographs became a series of one long continuous moving picture, someone added sound. Paintings, cameras, scriptwriting and recordings are the historical events that created film and television entertainment. All films, videos, and most television programs are, before they become anything else, recordings. (Watson 1990, 14) Film and television are photographs that move adding singing or talking audible voices. Sound quality used in film and television are equally important to putting together a show that is visually pleasing, holding audience as much as the lighting, designing, blocking, wardrobe, makeup and sequence of films. In the early 1900s, recordings were external devices played along with the film or television. Technologys ability putting motion into a series of photographs, showing the pictures in motion were not yet capable of recording the actors voices. Some television companies were using this technique as late as the seventies. If the actor’s prerecorded audio voices were offset from the video only fractions of a second, the inaccurate timing was visible to the audience. The actor was speaking and the words the actor was saying were heard before or after the audience could see him or her saying it. The popular Broadway musical, Singing in the Rain, released in the 1950’s shows audible One of the main points of the play tells how recordings were first incorporated into making complete films and television, how movies went from silent films to speaking films. One of the main characters was a very attractive dumb blonde lacking vocal skills. The studio gave her only nonspeaking roles, later attempted to work with her on her voice, experimenting with frustrating recording techniques. The point was to show how nonvisible audio determines visuality of the movie. External prerecorded devices are used, of course exaggerated into entertaining comedy, resulting in the woman’s voice getting mixed up with the acting parts of the male actors voice. The importance of sound quality to film and television comes together at the end of the movie, when a voice double is discovered. The first lesson one learns almost immediately after undertaking to write a comprehensive and critically weighed history of the American sound film is that one can never finish; one can only stop. (Sarris 1998, 3) Audible recordings were the last additions to completing the making of the films. Once added, limitations of film were lifted, allowing more options for visual enhancement for moving pictures. Voice projections, embellishments, sound effects give characters in the moving photographs personality, bringing the person shown in the picture or written in the book to life. Today, making silent full-length movies are not even considered. Art Consciously and unconsciously, artists borrow plots, characters, symbols, themes, interests, generic forms, ways of seeing, feeling and thinking. (Watson 1990, 98) Artist of today borrow from other artists, but the ones who invented art history are the masterminds and the reasons for the existence of film and television. Everything started with artists pictures, their drawings and probably the earliest story books. When someone decided to add movement to these pictures, it was determined music would give these pictures a stronger identity. The most popular films, television programs used borrowed themes from art legends. The most advanced filming techniques used today, originally began when there were no such thing as electricity, such as the camera obscura. The addition of sound to film originated with Pythagoras numbering system when studying the octaves of the universe. Impressions are not dependent on mathematical accuracy however, but intermittent imagery. (Watson 1990, 82) Images are indeed the visual effects carrying story lines from the beginning to the end in films, movies and television. When nonspeaking films were first invented in the 1920s, the audience had no idea of the visual affects produced by the background technology used to make the film. It was to the advantage to the technicians to study such techniques because it was cost effective. Today, the general public paying audiences may not understand the techniques behind movie making, but they can certainly see the lack of use of techniques. The first film and television developers were well aware of the importance of images to successful films and television programs. The whole idea behind films and television was moving images. Many of these moving images were borrowed from the artists from the past, or the theme of the movie implied a famous painting. Abstract art was considered to be a meaningless combination of colors. Use of coloring combinations makes images stand out and get noticed. Art paintings are the beginnings of the study of film and television productions. Finding a way to produce multiple pictures and putting these multiple pictures into motion pictures are the backbone of films and movies. Historical points sell. They give the audience a familiarity or a connection to the past. Perhaps, subconsciously historical images repeated in current films bring them back to a time in their life when they first studied these artists. Whatever the reason for the success, it works. Works Cited Camera. 2007. In The Columbia Encyclopedia 6th ed. , edited by Lagasse, Paul. New York: Columbia University Press. http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=od=112849953 (accessed March 16, 2008). Motion Pictures. 2007. In The Columbia Encyclopedia 6th ed. , edited by Lagasse, Paul. New York: Columbia University Press. http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=od=112874771 (accessed March 16, 2008). Sarris, Andrew. 1998. You Aint Heard Nothin Yet: The American Talking Film: History Memory, 1927-1949. New York: Oxford University Press. http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=od=24355309. Watson, Robert. 1990. Film and Television in Education: An Aesthetic Approach to the Moving Image. London: Falmer Press. http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=od=103505179.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Critical Enquiry Reflection Sheet Social Work Essay

Critical Enquiry Reflection Sheet Social Work Essay The moment of learning that has grabbed my attention in this supervision session is that I need to research and identify my practice framework when working bi-culturally with tangata whenua and cross-culturally. During my sixth supervision session my supervisor assessed me using the second direct practice observation relating to my second learning outcometo demonstrate competency when working with young people cross-culturally. This assessment led to discussions around my practice cross-culturally as I have been closely working with young people and their families who are of a different culture from my own. Also in my practice at the alterative education centre where I am placed two days a week I am the only pakeha person there. My supervisor stated in the assessment that Working in the school setting as the only female and pakeha person, has enabled her to identify the differences in culture but also helped her to work cross-culturally with other staff and clients. Family visitation has also helped her to identify areas that need more training in. When my supervisor asked me to identify how I work bi-culturally with tangata whenua and cross-culturally with clients I was unable to articulate easily how I practice in this setting. My response was that in the alternative education setting because I am the only pakeha person there, I work biculturally and cross-culturally: By respecting the Maori culture of the centre Removing my shoes when I enter I have had to learn the words in order to participate in the morning waiata and karakia I eat my lunch with the young men and the other tutors each day as sharing food together is part of the Maori culture Following on from this I have stated that during home visits with clients and their families I respect the different cultures; by removing my shoes and accepting food and beverages from cultures where the sharing of food is important. These responses were very vague and did not give a clear answer as to how I practice bi-culturally and cross-culturally. I am aware that I have been trained at university to practice from a bi-cultural and multi-cultural perspective but I have found it hard to articulate how I do this. As my supervisor has noted I have identified through this supervision session that I need to critically reflect on my practice cross-culturally and identify the areas that I need more training in order to become a competent bi-cultural and cross-cultural practitioner. For the benefit of cross-cultural practice and working with tangata whenua I as a social worker need to recognise that: As a professional helper, one can feel uneasy when challenged by striking difference is the first step towards self-reflection. This attitude has a better chance of leading to genuine accommodation of the client than pretending to be politically correct. The creation of collegial support structures and the cultivation of a climate of trust and open sharing within the service setting might encourage this attitude, to be affective in cross-cultural practice (Tsang George, 1998, p.87). Looking backward The assumptions and biases that are present in this moment of learning is my own cultural awareness; In Tatum (2000) she discuses the concept of identity and what it means for the individual and how the roles of the dominant over the subordinate can influence a persons view of themselves: This looking glass self is not a flat one-dimensional reflection, but multidimensional. How ones identity is experienced will be mediated by dimensions of one self: male or female; young or old, wealthy or poor, gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender or heterosexual; able-bodied or with disabilities: Christian, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu, or atheistà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Tatum, 2000). The role and the devaluation associated with it will differ in relation to the socio-cultural context that the subordinate person/s and the dominant groups are part of (Wolfensberger, 1972, as cited in (Wills, 2008b). Discourses are systemic ways of talking, discussing something of significance. They are the consequence of a combination of social, political even economic factors and often have voices of authority. Discourses are often informed by beliefs, ideas and understandings that are implicit; taken for grantedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦even ideologicalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Some forms of discourse are legitimated and validated but still one cannot be confident, and assume that such discourses have become established as a result of well-rationalised, carefully researched, developed and rigorous argument/debate (Wills, 2008a). Looking inward Looking outward Looking forward I identify to the families that although I am from a different culture to them I have been university trained to work cross-culturally and I am happy to enter into discussions around what this means for our social work relation Question construction 300 Literature300 In defining competence one must also consider the meaning of culture. Essentially, culture is understood to relate to some shared elements which connect people in a common way of experiencing and seeing the world. These perceptions of the world guide day-to-day living, influence how decisions are made and by whom, and determine what is perceived to be appropriate and inappropriate behaviour within any given context (Connolly, Crichton-Hill Ward, 2005 p.17, as cited in SWRB, 2007, p.5) To work with Maori clients the social worker must competently understand what Te Ao Maori means, the same goes with working with other cultural and ethnic groups. Using Tsang and Georges conceptual framework of attitude knowledge and skills the SWRB created its competence standards of practice. To understand what competent practice for Maori and other cultural and ethnic groups means for social workers in New Zealand I will be critically discussing in this essay; what the ANZASWs standards of practice are that inform competence and what it means for social work practice in New Zealand, I will identify and describe the constituent elements of Te Ao Maori the Maori world view, critically examine Tsang and Georges conceptual framework and apply their framework to an aspect of Te Ao Maori in a practice setting. Members of the ANZASW are accountable to the association and expected to abide by their policies and procedures, competent social work practice being one of them, the following ten standards for social work practice in Aotearoa New Zealand were set and ratified by the National Executive of NZASW (now ANZASW) in June 1990: The social worker establishes an appropriate and purposeful working relationship with clients taking into account individual differences and the cultural and social context of the clients situation. The social worker acts to secure the clients participation in the whole process of the working relationship with them. The social workers practice assists clients to gain control over her/his own circumstances. The social worker has knowledge about social work methods, social policy, social services, resources and opportunities. In working with clients, the social worker is aware of and uses her/his own personal attributes appropriately. The social worker only works where systems of accountability are in place in respect of his/her agency, clients and the social work profession. The social worker constantly works to make the organisation and systems, which are part of the social work effort, responsive to the needs of those who use them. The social worker acts to ensure the clients access to the Code of Ethics and objects of the New Zealand Association of Social Workers. The social worker uses membership of the New Zealand Association of Social Workers to influence and reinforce competent social practice. The social worker uses membership of the New Zealand Association of Social Workers to influence and reinforce competent practice (NZASW, 1993). To illustrate how these standards for practice work in professional social work practice I will select one standard and show how two aspects of the standard apply. For standard four: the social worker has knowledge about social work methods, social policy and social services, this standard can be shown in practice with how Child, Youth and Family services work within a bicultural framework and the Treaty of Waitangi: Child, Youth and Family acknowledges its duties and obligations to the tangata whenua as a Crown partner to New Zealands founding document, the Treaty of Waitangi. We are committed to ensuring that services we deliver and purchase are fully responsive to the needs and aspirations of Maori, and that our actions are consistent with the Principles for Crown Action on the Treaty of Waitangi. Our commitment is reflected in a key result area improved outcomes for Maori, the alliances and partnerships we have built and continue to foster with iwi and Maori social services groups and communities, our human resource policies, and in our work programme (especially the development and implementation of a strategy for improving outcomes for Maori children, young people and their families) (CYF, 2008). In relation to the social policy part of this standard the CYFs social workers are aware of the legislations of Aotearoa New Zealand and how other aspects of the law: Child, Youth and Familys statutory role is defined by the following legislation: The Children, Young Persons, and Their Families Act 1989 The Adoption Act 1955 The Adult Adoption Information Act 1985 The Adoption (Inter-country) Act 1997(CYF, 2008). Child, Youth and Family services are an excellent example of how an agency has set guidelines and policies around the standards set out by the SWRB and ANZASW to implement competent practice by their social workers. In the next part of this essay I will identify and describe the constituent elements of Te Ao Maori the Maori world view. To understand the Maori world view we must examine what are the Maori behaviour and conduct in social relationships or korero tawhito are; then what the Maori social structures of whanau, hapu, iwi mean and what the three classes of Maori society are, and what mana and tapu mean for Maori people who are the tangata whenua of Aotearoa. Korero tawhito are they ways in which Maori behave and conduct themselves in social relationships: Korero tawhito reflected the thought concepts, philosophies, ideals, norms and underlying values of Maori societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The values represent ideals, which were not necessarily achievable but something to aspire to (Ministry of Justice, 2001, p.1). These underlying values of Maori society are the ways in which Maori people socially interact with each other. The next step in understanding what the Maori world view is, is to understand Maori social structures: The Maori social structure was based on decent, seniority and the kinship groupings. Maori recognised four kin groups: Whanau the basic unit of Maori society into which an individual was born and socialised. Hapu the basic political init within Maori society, concerned with ordinary social and economic affairs and making basic day-to-day decisions. Iwi the largest independent, politico-economic unit in Maori society. An iwi would be identified by its territorial boundaries, which were of great social, cultural and economic importance (Ministry of Justice, 2001, p.2). The kin group a person belongs to affects their world view because it influences their place within society. The fundamental concepts of mana and tapu are those which govern the framework of Maori society: Mana was inherited at birth, and the more senior the descent of a person, the greater the mana. Tapu invariably accompanied mana. The more prestigious the event, person or object, the more it was surrounded by the protection of tapu. The complex notions of mana and tapu reflect the ideals and values of social control and responsibility. The analysis of mana endeavours to identify the role of mana in relation to responsibility, leadership and birthright. The examination of tapu illustrated how tapu operated and affected the everyday lives of Maori (Ministry of Justice, 2001, p.6). In examining the elements of Te Ao Maori I have examine the different concepts of Maori behaviour and conduct korero tawhito, the Maori social structures of kin and class and what mana and tapu mean. Theory 300 CRITERION FOR CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE THEORY/MODEL OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE Identifies and is based upon beliefs and values of Pacific Islands culture. Explains problems and concerns in a manner that is relevant to Pacific Islands understanding. Uses Pacific Islands helping traditions and practices. Incorporates a Pacific Islands understanding to change the process. Can differentiate aspects of the behaviour which are associated with Pacific Islands cultural patterns from those resultant in dominant palagi cultural interpretations. Avoids cultural pathological stereotyping. Encompass macro and micro levels of explanations and interventions. Incorporates the experiences of the community and individuals in New Zealand Society. Can guide the selection of appropriate knowledge and practice skills from other cultures. (Adapted from Meemeduma, P. (1994). Cross cultural social work: New models for new practice, Advances in social work welfare education, Montash University.) Ethics 300 Skills 300 The Social Work Registration Board of Aotearoa New Zealand released in 2007 a policy statement in regard to the competence of registered social workers to practise social work with Maori and different ethnic and cultural groups in New Zealand. The release of this document was to set the levels of competency that are needed for social workers to work effectively in a positive way to empower those who are disadvantaged by society.   As Mason Durie comments, cultural competence about the acquiring of skills to achieve a better understanding of members of other cultures (SWRB, 2007, p.5). To be competent when working with other cultures one must understand the differences and similarities between other cultures and know what is culturally appropriate and inappropriate; the social worker needs to respect the clients culture and use recourses available to them to effectively work with the client to achieve the best possible outcome Bicultural code of Ethics In the next part of this essay I will critically examine Tsang and Georges (1998) Integrated Conceptual Framework for Cross-cultural Practice of attitude, knowledge and skills. I will do this by describing the three elements and examining these elements by assessing their significance and importance in social work practice with mana whenua. To understand what the significance and importance of Tsang and Georges conceptual framework in relation to mana whenua we must first examine what mana whenua are: Mana whenua(noun):territorial rights, power from the land power associated with possession and occupation of tribal land. The tribes history and legends are based in the lands they have occupied over generations and the land provides the sustenance for the people and to provide hospitality for guests (Maori Dictionary, 2008). Now we know what mana whenua means the next apart is to describe the three elements of the framework: Attitude Commitment to justice and equity Valuing difference Other-directed: Openness to cultural difference Self directed: Critical self-reflection Knowledge Specific cultural content Systemic context of culture Acculturation and internalized culture Dynamics of cross-cultural communication and understanding Skills Management of own emotional response Professional intervention within institutional contexts Communication, engagement, and relationship skills Specific change strategies (Tsang and George, 1998, p.84). The concept of attitude relates to the social workers own behaviour and their use of self as a tool when working with clients, the concept of knowledge relates to the knowledge theories behind cross-cultural practice and knowledge learnt from a practitioners own experiences. The concept of skills relates to the practical aspect of working with clients. To use the element of attitude when working with mana whenua, one needs to be aware of their own limitations, lack of knowledge and understanding of other cultures: This awareness has both self-directed and other-directed implications. The other-directed expression of this awareness is an openness to cultural difference and a readiness to learn form a client. Such openness is based on acknowledgement and positive regard for the cultural differences that exist between the client and the practitioner, respect for client cultures, and readiness to accommodate alternative world views or ways of life. The self-directed expression of this awareness is a readiness to engage in self-reflection, including the examination of possible cultural biases, assumptions, values, and ones emotional experience and comfort level when challenged with difference (Tsang and George, 1998, p.84). For a social worker to be aware of their own limitations and lack of knowledge is the first step in establishing a working relationship with mana whenua, their own ability to acknowledge the differences and similarities between their own culture and their clients culture is a huge component of their attitude when working with their clients. Supervision is needed in this context for the social worker to be able to discuss with others their own reflections and feelings associated when working cross-culturally, for personal and professional growth. Knowledge is the next element in which the cross-cultural practice framework discusses the four elements of knowledge: We can identify four areas of cross-cultural knowledge. First is the knowledge of specific cultural content as captured by the cultural literacy model. In agreement with Dyche and Zayas (1995), it is probably not realistic to expect cros0cultural practitioners to be knowledgeable in a large number of cultural systems. It may be more practical for practitioners to focus on the other three kinds of knowledge: the systemic context of culture, acculturation and internalized culture, and the dynamics of cross-cultural communication and understanding. Consistent with an ecological perspective adopted by many social workers, cross-cultural clinical practice is understood within the broader systemic context of current structural inequalities, racial politics, histories of colonization, slavery, and other forms of racial oppression (Tsang and George, 1998, p.85). For a worker to work effectively cross-culturally they must understand and have knowledge of other cultures, historically, ethnically, their value and belief systems, their customs and day-to-day living. To have a comprehensive understanding of a clients total living and life experience a practitioner must have an appreciation of the effects of their socio-political systems. In this context in New Zealand it would be effective for social workers working with mana whenua to have knowledge of the Treaty of Waitangi and what it means for Maori people and the political aspects that go with it. The final element of Skills in Tsang and Georges model related to the specific skills a social worker needs when working biculturally with the mana whenua and cross-culturally: Social work skills are specific courses of action taken by practitioner to achieve positive changes needed by their clients à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Appropriate attitude and knowledge in cross-cultural practice, therefore, must be translated into specific professional behaviour which addresses practitioner, client, institutional and contextual realities. A variety of skills have been recommended by authors in cross-cultural practice, covering professional behaviour within institutional contexts; communication skills, specific interviewing skills such as ethnographic interview, relationship-building skills, and change strategies (Tsang and George, 1998, p.85-86). Practice skills can not be effective without the social worker having a sound understanding of knowledge and the appropriate attitude when working with mana whenua. Skills are the practical component on Tsang and Georges model, and when working with mana whenua the practitioner must use the appropriate skills from their knowledge base for their work to be effective. Their interactions with their clients are an important part of their role as a social worker. Mana whenua need social workers with the specialist cross-cultural skills. In this part of the essay I have examined Tsang and Georges model of attitude, knowledge and skills by describing the three elements and examining the elements by assessing their significance and importance in social work practice with mana whenua and other cultures. Evidence 300

Thursday, September 19, 2019

Maureen Peal & Imitation of Life :: John M. Stahl, Film, Movie

Imitation of Life is about Peola Johnson, light skined black girl who tries to go through life as a white person. To achieve this she ostracises her family. She breaks all ties with her black mother and her culture and tries to fit into this community in which she really has no place. "It's because of you, you made me black! I won't be black!" The problems Maureen Peal and Peola Johnsson share are as serious as the ones the young blck girls have in the bluest yes. According to Sandy Flitterman-Lewis: In each film's representation of the transgressive woman-the black daughter who looks white, and who, because of the contradiction between being and seeming which defines her, can fit comfortably into neither culture-there is a correspondence between feminine sexuality and alterity which results in a sexualization of the radical 'otherness' of the black woman. (44) This is instrumental to the development of Pecola’s charater. This is also instrumental to the fate she meets in the end. Pecola and Peola are similar, not in their looks but in their situations. Pecola does also live between two worlds like Peola but in a different manner. Peolas’s problems are serious and the implictions are serious and extensive. According to Flitterman-Lewis, the mere term mulato brings up miscegenation, and theerfore leads people to think of â€Å"forbidden sexual relations and the impossible mixing of races" Flitterman-Lewis 46). Pauline is so immersed into images projected by the screen that her daughter is named after Peola. Nevermind that mother nor daughter is mulatto like Peola. Nornally a mother would not want her daughter to be in such situations yet Pauline names her daughter Pecola and embraces the beauty ideals and Maureen’s mother embraces the film. Maybe in someway she felt a kinship[ with Pecola because she would understand her position. Sources Blumler, J G & Elihu, K (1974) - Sage Annual Reviews of Communication Research Vol.3, The Uses of Mass Communication: Current perspectives on gratifications research. CA:Sage Christian, Barbara. Black Women Novelists: The Development of a Tradition, 1892-1976.

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

The Fall of the Roman Empire Essay -- Decline of Ancient Rome

The Roman Empire was, without a doubt, the most powerful governing body in the Mediterranean that ever was. At the peak of the Roman Empire, in the mid part of the first century, it covered about half of Europe, much of the Middle East, and the north coast of Africa. So why did Rome fall? There was not one cause that led to the fall of Rome, but many things occurring in succession to each other. After the reign of Tiberus, there were many poor leaders, two of which were Caligula and Nero. Caligula killed his sister, among many other people and made his favorite horse a senator. Nero murdered his wife and mother and was accused of setting fire to Rome. Such deeds were common because the laws of the empire favored the rich landowners and who ordered and were the target of many assassinations (Gibbon, 70). It is true when it is said that Rome was not built in a day. Nor did it fall in a day. Many factors contributed to the ruin of the Roman Empire. The two most important factors were this: the cities consumed without producing and disease ravaged the Roman world. After the Punic wars with Carthage, Rome acquired many new lands that it did not have before. The farmers of these lands came to the cities, only knowing how to farm and fight wars. With their farms were destroyed, some were able to fight for the professional army, but others were left with nothing to do. These first families had no skills to pass down to their descendants. Generations passed and soon there were no more people that knew how to farm or earn a living. The powers of Rome made this worse by not educating the masses that first came to the cities after the Punic Wars (Stambaugh, 125). During peace times it was easy to govern these areas but du... ... their entire civilization was based on war, greed, and arrogance. Bibliography Baker, Simon. "Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of An Empire" BBC Books; Reprint edition, 2007 Coolidge, Olivia E. "Lives of Famous Romans." American Home School Publishing, 2007. Gibbon, Edward. "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Everyman's Library, 2010. Grant, Michael. "The Fall of the Roman Empire." Scribner, 1997. Web. 25 June 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23040343?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Guittard, Charles. "The Romans: Life in the Empire." Millbrook Press, 1996. Roberts, J. and Westad, O. "The History of the World" Oxford University Press, 2013. Stambaugh, John E. "The Ancient Roman City." Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. Vickers, Michael J. "The Roman World (The Making of the Past)." Peter Bedrick Books, 1989.

Tuesday, September 17, 2019

College And Sleeping :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Are you curious if those all night cram study hours are working? I bet your wondering if they are actually helping or hurting your midterm grade? I’m sure all of us have spent an all nighter studying for that Chemistry or Economics exam that you just have to do well on because its 50 percent of your grade. Not only are you studying so hard for that A+, but your mental well-being. We all feel pressured to do well in college for many reasons. For that high paying job were promised if we graduate from a top-notch school or what about the assumption that you will have a better future. And for those of you whose parents are paying thousands of dollars for tuition, wouldn’t want to let mom or dad down. The answer is here. June J. Pilcher conducted a study of whether sleep deprivation affects your ability of acing that test if you just would have went to bed earlier.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  June J. Pilcher published an article â€Å"How sleep Deprivation Affects Psychological Variables Related to College Students Cognitive Performance,† in the Journal of American College Health on November of 1997.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Voluntary sleep deprivation is a common occurrence for many collge students, who often partially deprive themselves of sleep during the week and compensate by increasing their sleep time over the weekend. This pattern of sleep deprivation and rebound becomes more pronounced around examination periods, sometimes resulting in 24 to 48 hours of sleep deprivation. By depriving themselves of sleep, college students are not only increasing their feelings of sleepiness during the day, thus decreasing their ability to pay attention in class, but are also negatively affecting their ability to perform on exams.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The effect of sleep deprivation on psychological variable associated with performance, such as self-reported estimates of attention, effort, and performance, have not been thoroughly investigated. Few studies have examined perceived effort and performance, and the results from those studies have often been contradictory. For example, some researchers have suggested that sleep deprivation may affect the willingness of the individual to put forth the effort to perform well on a task more than the actual ability of the individual to perform.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By contrast, other researchers have concluded that people may realize a decrease in performance levels following sleep deprivation and attempt to overcome this by increasing their effort . However other studies have shown that a perceived increase in effort does not appear to overcome the harmful effects of sleep deprivation.

Monday, September 16, 2019

Data Base Management

Data Base:It is the collection of data regarding an individual, group of people working together, a department in an organization or an organization.[1]Types of Data Base:Depending on the number of people, database is classified into 4 types.1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Personal Database:   It is for an individual or single user.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Workgroup Database:   If the employees number is in between 10-15 people.3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Department Database: It is for 15-50 employees.4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Enterprise Database: If the no of employees is more than 50 people.Database Model:A Database Model is a visual plan for building a database. It focuses on representing the data as the user actually sees it, bridging between the concepts that make up real-world events.Raw DataThis is the process in which, raw data is collected and is converted into information which is the filtered raw data. Then, the information is described in the proper form called as the meta data which is the data description and this data is collected to form a database. So, database is the organized collection of related data.Data Definition:One very important role of a database management system is to maintain the data definitions for each table and columns in the database.   Each piece of data must be assigned a name, a data type (e.g. date, alphanumeric, numeric) and a mandatory/optional status.[2]Architecture:There are three levels in the design architecture of the database.1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   User design:   It can be used by any no of users. It is operational database.2.      Logical design: It is the logical structure of database. It is irrespective of the hardware or other things. It concerns only with logical structure.3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Physical design: It concerns with the hardware requirements of the data base. It is not related to either the user or the logical structure.There are different types of DBMS products: relational, network and hierarchical etc but the most commonly used database management system by most of the commercial organization is the Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS).Data Structures: Data structures (fields, records, files and objects) optimized to deal with very large amounts of data stored on a permanent data storage device (which implies relatively slow access compared to volatile main memory).Database Project:The database project would be developed in different stages like1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Initiation which includes the gathering and defining the data and their types.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Planning of the requirement and how to generate the required outputs.3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Design which includes two parts1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Physical Design: Gathering the hardware requirements.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Logical Design:   Designing the logical structure of database.4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Implementation in which we provide the required data to the database.5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Maintenan ce: It includes the proper co-ordination of the input and the  Ã‚  Ã‚   requirement.Maintenance:The database project will be maintained using a repository server which provides all the required data and logical functions that are used in the project.Deploy:It is a process of delivery of the output obtained in the project to the client who sends the feed back depending on the report he receives.References:Encyclopedia:Data base management systems, Retrieved 12:06, 17 December 2007.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DatabaseBook:Robert V.Henry, Data Base Management System.Internet blog:1. Information Technology Toolbox, Inc. (1998-2007)2. Database Management systems.[1] Encyclopedia:  Data base management systems, Retrieved 12:06, 17 December 2007.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database [2] Information Technology Toolbox, Inc. (1998-2007)http://database.ittoolbox.com/